Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) – Advanced Pharmacology

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) – Advanced Pharmacology

Type of document           Essay

1 Page Double Spaced

Subject area         Pharmacology Academic Level Master

Style      APA       References         3

Order description:

Please respond to Catherines post by who provided a different rationale than you did, in one or more of the following ways:

Offer and support an alternative perspective using readings from the classroom or from your own research in the Walden Library.

Validate an idea with your own experience and additional research

Please use the readings and resources as some of the references

Required Readings

Arcangelo, V. P., Peterson, A. M., Wilbur, V., & Reinhold, J. A. (Eds.). (2017). Pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice: A practical approach (4th ed.). Ambler, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Chapter 8, “Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy” (pp. 111-134)

This chapter covers factors that impact the selection of an antimicrobial treatment regimen. It also examines the clinical uses, adverse events, and drug interactions of various antimicrobial agents such as penicillin.

Chapter 12, “Fungal Infections of the Skin” (pp. 163-196)

This chapter explores the pathophysiology of several fungal infections of the skin as well as related drug treatments and examines the importance of patient education when managing these infections.

Chapter 14, “Bacterial Infections of the Skin” (pp. 181-196)

This chapter begins by examining causes of bacterial infections. It then explores the importance of selecting an appropriate agent for treating bacterial infections.

Chapter 32, “Urinary Tract Infection” (pp. 519-526)

This chapter covers drugs used to treat urinary tract infections and identifies special considerations when treating geriatric patients, pediatric patients, and women.

Chapter 35, “Sexually Transmitted Infections” (pp. 512-535)

This chapter outlines the causes, pathophysiology, and drug treatment of six sexually transmitted infections, including gonorrhea, syphilis, and human papilloma virus infection (HPV). It also examines the importance of selecting the proper agent and monitoring patient response to treatment.

Chapter 49, “Human Immunodeficiency Virus” (pp. 843-860)

This chapter presents the causes, pathophysiology, diagnostic criteria, and prevention methods for HIV. It also covers various methods of drug treatment and patient factors to consider when selecting, administering, and managing drug treatments.

Krummenacher, I., Cavassini, M., Bugnon, O., & Schneider, M. (2011). An interdisciplinary HIV-adherence program combining motivational interviewing and electronic antiretroviral drug monitoring. AIDS Care, 23(5), 550–561.

Note: Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

This article analyzes medication adherence in HIV patients and examines factors that increase adherence as well as factors that contribute to termination or discontinuation of treatment.

Drugs.com. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.drugs.com/

This website presents a comprehensive review of prescription and over-the-counter drugs including information on common uses and potential side effects. It also provides updates relating to new drugs on the market, support from health professionals, and a drug-drug interactions checker.

Scourfield, A., Waters, L., & Nelson, M. (2011). Drug combinations for HIV: What’s new? Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy, 9(11), 1001–1011.

Note: Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

This article examines current therapies and strategies for treating HIV patients. It also examines factors that impact selection of therapy, including drug interactions, personalization of therapy, costs, management of comorbidities, and patient response.

Required Media

Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2012). Antimicrobials. Baltimore, MD: Author.

This media presentation outlines principles of antimicrobial therapy

Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 7 minutes.

Optional Resources

Mayer, K. H., & Krakower, D. (2012). Antiretroviral medication and HIV prevention: New steps forward and New Questions. Annals of Internal Medicine, 156(4), 312–314.

Note: Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

In addition, refer to the Optional Resources listed in Week 1.

Catherines post

Introduction

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the body’s immune system, precisely the CD4 cells (T cells), which aid the immune system fight off infections. Unmanaged, HIV reduces the number of CD4 cells (T cells) in the body, making the patient more susceptible to other infections. These opportunistic infections take advantage of a fragile immune system and signal that the person has AIDS, the last stage of HIV infection (CDC, 2016). The Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the most common and perhaps the most deadly immunodeficiency disorder the world has ever witnessed in the last century. AIDS is a result of a chronic retroviral infection that leads to, life-threatening CD4 helper T lymphocyte dysfunctions. Retroviruses RNA is transcribed into double-stranded DNA and then integrated into the host genome following infection with HIV. The virus replicates and infects other cells, repeating the process each time. The virus continues to reproduce, which leads to a progressive decline in CD4 T lymphocytes over the course of months to years, infected individuals may remain asymptomatic for 5-10 years (CDC. org, 2016). It is transmitted by exposure to infected body fluids or sexual or perinatal contact. Acute HIV infection usually present with fatigue, pharyngitis, myalgias, rash, lymphadenopathy, and significant viremia but without detectable anti-HIV antibodies.

Increased Complacency Due to More Advanced Drug Treatment Options For HIV/AIDS

The incredible success with the new highly active antiretroviral therapies (HAART), which offers hope, and extends the life of those living with HIV and AIDS has improved their quality of life, and lead to a reduction in morbidity and mortality rate. The success indeed relates to the potent combination of antiretroviral therapy. Despite this achievement, the incidence of adults and adolescents affected by HIV have increased to an alarming rate in the developed and developing countries due to complacency. The CDC currently estimates that 1.1 million people in the US are living with HIV (CDC.org 2016), this is a significant number of people, though it may be a small percentage of the USA population. The figure indicates that the fight against HIV and AIDS is not yet over. Complacency about HIV, in my opinion, could be a barrier to the control of this disease; this complacency may also be linked to the progress recorded in the area of research and development towards finding a cure for the disease. A more troubling part of contentment comes from the reporting of the smaller number of people who are living with or dying from the disease every year around the world by all the agencies involved in the documentation (Arcangelo and Peterson 2017). Still, there is no cure yet, and all stakeholders must maintain focus on the prevention of the disease, increasing access to HARRT should not be allowed to slow down the prevention and control measures that were previously initiated for the control of the disease. According to CDC.org, another factor that further indicates complacency is that 1 in 7 of those infected is not aware of their HIV status. These individuals may engage in unprotected sexual intercourse and expose their partners to the risk of infection. Based on this complacency, there is the need for all stakeholders involved to embark on developing educational strategies targeting vulnerable groups of people to increase their knowledge about the disease and its prevention.

Educating HIV Positive Patients: Adherence and Reducing Risk

Medicare and commercial insurance providers measure and encourage health care providers to inform their patients on the importance of adherence in the management of chronic conditions such as hypertension, diabetes, etc., this approach could also be useful in driving compliance with antiretroviral medications. There are several examples of one-on-one counseling methods used for risk reduction counseling among HIV positive individuals. Healthcare Providers should provide education to patients whenever the opportunity presents itself. While the number of AIDS cases has reduced, the number of people living with HIV infection is growing every day because of the current lifestyle. Clinicians have an excellent opportunity to enhance awareness and increase the knowledge of the certainties of HIV. First, providers can teach individuals that HIV disease management is a life-long process. The focus of control of the HIV disease is to sustain suppression of the HIV viral load, to restore and to improve the immune system, to enhance the quality of life, and to reduce illnesses and death from HIV complications. The professional can also explain, to the patient, the possibility of emergency medical complications that are associated with HIV.

Educational Strategies

Health care providers must implement strategies not only to increase drug observance but also to decrease the risk of infecting others. Patients with a diagnosis of HIV must be thaught to adhere to the regimen of medication therapy to attain the full benefits. The goal of treatment is adherence and protection. Individuals must be given information as it relates to safe sex practices and avoids needle sharing. The healthcare professionals have to explain the factual information of life-long clinic appointments, medication adjustment based on laboratory results, and medication compliance. Providers can form a personal adherence and prevention program to educate the community about the dangers of HIV. The HIV advocate may have a positive relationship with associates and partners. This approach will allow for an excellent opportunity to teach many people within their community the importance of adherence, prevention, and successful treatment (Bruce, D. et al. 2013).

UNESCO recommended HIV and sexuality education among groups of people. The organization also wants efforts directed at vulnerable individuals in hyper-endemic communities, such as drugs users who are likely to share or reuse needles, homosexual men and women or girls in poor neighborhoods who may be enticed to have sex for money. Education plays several roles that go beyond sharing information about the spread of the disease, in women and girls, it may also help build women’s self-esteem and capacity to act on HIV prevention messages, improving their economic prospects, influencing the power balance in relationships, and affect their social and sexual networks (UNESCO 2009). Hence, several approaches can be implemented by counselors in providing education and prevention counseling to individuals who are at risk and those who have been infected with the virus. Additional attention should be focused on the Minority AIDS Initiative (MAI) which serves as a vital resource to improve Health and Human Services Commision (HHSC) agencies and offices’ ability to enhance HIV-related outcomes and reduce HIV related disparities among racial and ethnic minority communities (UNESCO 2009).

Conclusion

From the advent of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1980s to today, the world population has suffered on an unpredictable scale. Effective long-term treatments for HIV/AIDS have improved dramatically since the beginning of the epidemic and what was once an uncontrollable disease has become more manageable and chronic disease, despite all this management, there is still the prevalence of the disease. A condition as complicated as HIV/AIDS is still a disease that needs better understanding and continued study (Bruce, D. et al. 2013).

Reference

Arcangelo, V. P., Peterson, A. M., Wilbur, V., & Reinhold, J. A. (Eds.). (2017).

Pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice: A practical approach (4th ed.). Ambler, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Bruce, D., Harper, G., & Suleta, K. (2013). Sexual risk behavior and risk reduction beliefs among HIV-positive young men who have sex with men. AIDS Behavior, 17, 1515-1523.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (CDC). (2016). CDC fact sheet Today’s

HIV/AIDS Epidemic. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/docs/factsheets/todaysepidemic-508.pdf

Mmbaga EJ. (2013) HIV Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors: Analysis of Change over

Time in Mainland Tanzania. DHS Working Paper. No. 85.

Stephen J. McPhee, Gary D. Hammer. (2014). Pathophysiology of disease: an introduction to

clinical medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill Education Medical.

UNESCO (2009). A Strategic Approach: HIV & AIDS and Education. Retrieved on July 18

from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0016/001627/162723e.pdf